CLASS: SENIOR THREE
COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT I: REVIEW OF KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
UNIT II: PLOT DEVELOPMENT
UNIT III: TONE, ATMOSPHERE AND PURPOSE
UNIT IV: TYPES OF POETRY AND POEMS
UNIT V: POETIC DEVICES
UNIT VI: CONTEXT AND PLOT DEVELOPMENT
UNIT VII: CHARACTER, SUBJECT MATTER AND THEMES
UNIT VIII: STYLE, MOOD AND ATMOSPHERE.
……………………………………………………………..
UNIT I: REVIEW OF THE KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
I.1. KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
Prose writing involves writing in a language similar to everyday speech with no metric structure. Prose refers to the ordinary or the normal form of written or spoken language which has no metrical pattern. It is the style of writing that is employed in novels, novellas and short stories.
Prose is a form of writing that is natural and uses grammatical structure. Most forms of writing and speaking are done in prose. It is the most common form of writing. It is usually straightforward and may utilize figurative language.
Key aspects of prose are the basic elements on which the story is built upon. Those key aspects of prose include plot, setting, characters, subject, theme and message.
A. PLOT
Plot refers to the way events or actions of a story are arranged, especially the way they relate to each other in a cause and effect manner. In short, plot is the cause and effect arrangement of the actions or events in a story.
Plot can also be:
- The order of events in a story.
- The sequence of events in a story.
- The succession of events in a story.
- The arrangement of events in a story.
- The main events of a story devised to be presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence.
The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and an end.
The parts/elements of a plot
Exposition/introduction: It is the opening/beginning of a story where the characters and setting are revealed. Sometimes the main conflict is also introduced here.
Rising action: This is where the events in the story become complex. The conflict is revealed at this stage (events between introduction and climax).
Climax: It is the highest point of interest, tension and suspense. It is the turning point of the story where the reader questions what will happen next.
Falling action: At this stage the events and conflicts/complications begin to be resolved. Events show the results of how the characters begin to resolve the conflict.
Resolution/ denouement: The part of the plot that concludes the falling action by revealing or suggesting the outcome of the conflict. It is the end of the story.
The types of plot
Linear plot: It is a plot which starts from a certain point and ends at another point. The events in the story flow a chronological/sequential order. At the end of a linear plot, the main character finds a solution to his problems or not.
Circular plot: It is the plot which ends at the same place where it began. It is the unfolding of events that begin and end in the same place. It is when the story starts with the end and then jumps back in time, to the beginning. In a circular plot the solution to a conflict/problem is never reached
B. SETTING
Setting refers to the place and time at which a play, novel, or film is represented as happening. It is the historical period, geographical place and social-cultural context in which the events of a story occur. Setting is also the place and time of a story. It answers the questions of where and when. The time and place can be real or imaginary.
Setting as:
Time: -the actual time in which the events of a story occur, like at 5h00’ A.M, during the night, on Monday, in August, in 2019….
-the historical period in which the events of a story occur, as Before Christ, precolonial period, colonial period, post-colonial period, post-independence era, post genocide period…
Place: – the geographical place where the events of a story take place like inside the house, on the hill, in a garden, in a sea, at Muyumbu, in Rwanda, in Nyungwe Forest, at school, in a prison….
The socio-cultural context in which the events of a story are set like in urban or rural environment or in a traditional society…
The types of setting
The social setting: It refers to the physical environment in which the events of a story happen.
Ex: In a town, a slum, a suburb, upcountry…
The historical setting: It is the specific time in which the events in a story happen.
Ex: Before Christ, pre-colonial era, colonial period, post-colonial era,computer age…
Cultural setting: It includes the patterns of behaviours and beliefs that dominate the society
in which the characters live. It includes the family relations, moral values,gender roles, customs, beliefs…
Political setting: It refers to the prevailing political situation around which a story revolves. A story could condemn bad governance or unequal distribution of national resources.
Context
Context refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a particular event. It also refers to the social, cultural, and historical circumstances and setting at which the author is writing. Therefore, context refers to the background information surrounding a subject.
Social context: It refers to the reflection of how the characters’ actions and attitudes are affected by events occurring around the time and place where they live. It involves the characters’ interactions in all levels of life.
Historical context: This refers to the time period in which a story occurs. Both historical events (like wars) can influence the story. It is an aspect of setting that pertains to when events and when characters live and interact.
Cultural context: It can be described as the sustained conditions, collective expectations and prevailing norms among a group of people or a social network. It includes the values of a society, their beliefs social and moral norms as well as the meanings people give to the human actions and behaviours.
Political context: This deals with the leadership characteristics and dynamics of a society. It includes the types of leadership (like democracy, monarchy, kingdom, chiefdom), the role of people in determining their leadership, freedoms and rights…
C. CHARACTERS
A character refers to the person, animal or an object that the writer of a story or a play uses to advance the plot or theme. He/she is a fictional human being, animal or thing in a story. The character is any person, animal or figure represented in a literary work. Characters are central figures on which the action of the plot happens.
Types of characters
Main/major/central characters: They are characters that play a big role in the story. Most of the actions in the story happen around these characters. They are central figures in the story and the plot and resolution of the conflict revolves around them.
Main characters are the leading characters in the story. They form the core of the story and the theme is based on them. These ones are categorized into two:
Protagonist: A protagonist is a main character who is faced with problem/conflict he must resolve. He is a main character who has good behaviours. He is considered as a hero.
Antagonist: An antagonist is a main character who usually challenges the protagonist or test him/her. He/she is a main character who has bad behaviours. He/she is also considered as a villain.
Main characters are well developed which makes us to know more about them and we can relate to them.
Minor characters: They are characters that do not play a big role in the story. They are characters that support/help or serve to complement the main ones and help move the plot events forward.
Characters can also be categorized as:
Positive characters: They are characters that show positive /good qualities or behaviours. They can be brave, hardworking, caring, humble, peaceful,…
Ex: Protagonist
Negative characters: They are characters that show negative/bad qualities/behaviours. They can be wicked, cruel, brutal, lazy, revengeful,…..
Ex: Antagonist
Other types of characters:
Dynamic character is a character who changes over time. This kind of character goes through some sorts of change. He/she/it grows or changes his/her/its personality, attitudes, behaviours.
Static character is a character who doesn’t change over time. This remains the same throughout a story.
Round/complex character is a character that has a complex personality. He /she is a character that has a mixture of traits that come from both nature and experience. This character is fully developed and described than a flat one. He/she is viewed as a conflicted and a contradictory character. A round character is a major character in a story.
Flat/simple character is a character that shows one or two personality traits in a story. He/she can’t be a main character. That character is neither conflicted nor contradictory. He/she doesn’t change and the story doesn’t reveal much about him.
Stock characters is a type of flat character that appears so often in fiction and is recognized by more readers.
Characterization
Characterization refers to the author’s representation and development of characters in the story.
How to identify characters
In studying a short story, novel,…we need to identify and know the characters very well. In order to identify them we look at:
- The physical description of a character in terms of size, colour, and general appearance.
- What the character says about him/herself and about other issues affecting the society.
- The character’s actions in his/her interactions with other characters in the society.
- What other characters in the story say about him/her.
- The character’s thoughts, desires, dreams and wishes.
How to identify characters and explain their behaviours
In order to describe characters, we use adjectives. A character may be described in many ways such as:
Good, bad, funny, lazy, ugly, rude, hardworking, polite, beautiful, kind, careless, honest, etc.
The author creates different characters and has to show what makes a character behave the way he/she does or why he/she behaves in that way and how his/her behaviours affect others.
D. SUBJECT
A subject is a topic which acts as a foundation for a literary work/story. It is the subject which makes a writer writes something. It is what something is about. Subject is the inspiration that makes you write anything.
E. THEME
A theme can be explained as follow:
- A theme is an opinion expressed on the subject.
- It is what a poet is saying about a certain subject.
- It is the central/ main idea of the story.
- It is the poet’s opinion or perspective about a certain issue in society.
- It is the controlling idea which is continuously developed throughout the story.
- It is the central and unifying concept of a story.
Minor theme: It is an idea that appears in a story briefly or an idea that appears once in a while in a story.
Major theme: It refers to an idea that a writer repeats in his/her work making it the most significant idea in a literary work.
Themes can be about friendship, love, good vs bad, loneliness, grief,…..
F. MESSAGE
A message can be explained as follow:
- A message refers to the lesson the writer wishes to convey to the society through his/her story.
- A message is what an author wants the society to learn from his/her literary work.
- It is the kind of a lesson that the reader learns after reading the story.
- It is the moral in the story.
- It is something the story aims to teach the reader.
- It is the lesson the writer wishes the society to learn from his/her poem.
Messages can be about respecting elders, not fighting, caring for your loved ones,…
TYPES OF THEMES AND MESSAGES
The two types of themes and messages are: – Hidden
– Fully stated
Hidden themes/messages
Hidden themes or messages are the ones which are hidden. They are implied or communicated indirectly or suggested. To get them, the reader has to use his/her intelligence and analysis. They are also called implicit messages/ themes.
Fully stated themes/messages
These are the themes or messages which are stated or communicated directly or clearly. The reader does not have to analyse the poem to find them. They are fully and clearly expressed leaving nothing implied. They are also called explicit messages/themes.
G. AUDIENCE
We modify what we say and how we say it depending on who our audience is. Our content, tone and language changes according to what we know about our audience. In writing, audience is whom you are writing for.
- Audience is the number of people or particular group of people who watch, read or listen to the same thing.
- It is also the group of people who have gathered to watch or listen to something (a play, a concert, somebody speaking…)
- For books, audience refers to people who read that book.
In few words, audience refers to the spectators, listeners and intended readers of a writing, performance or speech.
Target audience
Target audience refers to the person or group of people a piece of writing is intended to reach.
Intended audience
It refers to the group of people for whom a service or product (novel, novella, poem, play) is designed.
I.2. TECHNIQUES FOR COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Comparison
The term compare is used to discuss both the differences and similarities. When we compare similarities, we show that two people or things are similar.
Contrast
Contrast is used to discuss the differences only. It shows that one person or thing is better or worse than another.
Discussing the similarities and differences allows us to get a deeper understanding of the events, ideas and characters in a story.
Transitional expressions and phrases used to compare and contrast.
In order for your essay on comparison and contrast to flow, you must use the following transitional expressions to indicate movement to another idea that is similar or different.
|
Comparison (same) |
Contrast (difference) |
|
Similarly |
However |
|
In the same way |
While |
|
Like |
Whereas |
|
Just like |
Unlike |
|
Likewise |
On one hand…on the other hand |
|
As well as |
On the contrary |
|
Also |
Despite |
|
As…as |
Although |
|
Both |
Yet |
There are three types of comparing and contrasting:
Point by point: Point by point comparison and contrast technique involves taking one aspect at a time and discuss it exhaustively before moving to the next aspect.
Block method: It involves discussing all the key aspects of one story exhaustively then move to the next story and do the same.
Similarities to differences: You discuss all the similarities in both stories first and then move on to discuss the differences in the stories.
I.3. FURTHER ASPECTS OF PROSE
PLOT
Plot is the order or sequence of events in a story.
Flashback
An author may decide to use a non-linear plot. At this time the events do not flow a chronological order. Flashback is a literary style that the writer uses to take the reader back in time to the past experience or event.
The difference between a memory and a flashback is that a memory is brief and does not interrupt the normal flow of a story.
CHARACTER
A character refers to any human being, animal or thing portrayed in a story.
Static character
A static character is a character that remains the same throughout the story. He/she doesn’t show changes in the story
Dynamic character
A dynamic character is the one that grows or changes as the story continues. He/she changes according to circumstances. He/she portrays different emotions and traits.
POINT OF VIEW
It refers to the angle an author uses to tell the reader about the happenings in a literary text. It is the method the author uses to narrate the story. Simply, it is who is telling the story.
There are three kinds of point of view:
The first person point of view
The author tells the story from the I, me, we, us perspective. The narrator is one of the characters in the story.
The second person point of view
It is a type of narration that is told from the you, your perspective. It is not a common way of narration but when it is used, the author wants to draw the attention of the reader to the story and make him/her feel he/she is part of the events happening in the story.
The third person point of view
The story is narrated from a he/she, they or it perspective. This point of view is also called omniscient as the narrator is all knowing although he/she is not a character. He/she knows every move made by characters, their motive, thoughts and feelings. He can move with characters from place to place.
THEMES
A theme is a main idea that recurs in a work of art or literature.
Major theme
It is the predominant ideas in a story and are recurrent throughout the story.
Minor theme
It is a theme that appears once or briefly.
……………………………………………………………..
UNIT II: PLOT DEVELOPMENT
II.1. DEFINITION
Plot development refers to how the events and actions are arranged or structured in a story. It is also the progression of events leading to a resolution.
II.2. THE PLOT ELEMENTS
The structure of the plot is determined by the following elements: Exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution.
a. Exposition/introduction: It is the opening/beginning of a story where the reader is introduced to characters, and the setting is revealed. Sometimes the main conflict is also introduced here.
A conflict: It is the struggle between two opposing characters or forces
b. Rising action: This is where the events in the story become complex. The conflict is revealed at this stage (events between introduction and climax).
c. Climax: It is the highest point of interest, tension and suspense. It is the turning point of the story where events reach their peak and /the reader questions what will happen next.
d. Falling action: At this stage the events and conflicts/complications begin to resolve. Events show the results of how the characters begin to resolve the conflict.
e. Resolution/ denouement: The parts of the plot that concludes the falling action by revealing or suggesting the outcome of the conflict. It is the end of the story.
……………………………………………………………..
UNIT III: TONE, ATMOSPHERE AND PURPOSE
III.1. REVIEW OF LITERARY TECHNIQUES
Literary techniques are specific language techniques which writers use to create text that is clear, interesting, and memorable. Authors use different literary techniques and their choice sets the tone, mood and the purpose of the text.
Flashback: It is the interruption of the normal flow of events to the events that happened earlier. It is a literary technique which interrupts the present action by inserting an event/ episode that happened earlier.
Foreshadowing: It is the use of clues to alert the reader about the events that will occur in the future (later). It is used to build suspense.
Flash-forward: It is a sudden jump forward in time. It is also an insertion of a later event into the chronological structure of a novel, play, …
Allegory: It is a symbolic fiction story. It is also the representation of abstract principles by characters or figures.
Alliteration: It is a repetition of initial consonant sounds. It refers to the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.
Hyperbole: It is an exaggeration that is used to evoke strong feelings.
Imagery is referred to the creation of mental images of scenes by using descriptive words.
Paradox is a phrase that describes an idea made by concepts that conflict.
Satire is referred to the use of humour, irony or exaggeration to criticize.
Metaphor: It is a comparison that doesn’t use ‘like’, ‘as’ or ‘than’.
Personification is the attribution of human characteristics to a non-living object or an animal.
III.2. TONE
It is the attitude or feelings of a writer towards the subject matter or the audience. It is the manner of writing about the subject, characters and theme by careful choice of words. This choice of words creates tone.
Tone may be described as being sentimental, approving, appreciative, sad, comic, abusive, mocking, condescending, sarcastic, critical, happy, romantic, sorrowful, lamenting, ridiculous, serious, sympathetic, bitter, melancholic among others.
Types of tone
a. Formal tone: It is the tone which is factual and objective. The words are written as you would find in textbooks and academic writing.
b. Informal tone: It is the casual/occasional/irregular/accidental tone. It is characterized by the use of slang, pidgin, proverbs, contracted words, …
c. Comic tone involves the use of a funny or humorous voice in a literary text.
d. Sad tone: This involves the use of words that trigger feelings of sadness in the reader.
III.3. ATMOSPHERE/MOOD
Atmosphere refers to the emotions invoked/applied in the readers as he/she reads a piece of writing. It is also the feeling, emotion or mood a writer conveys to a reader through the description of setting and objects.
The feeling could be sad, afraid, happy, amused, critical, humorous, tense, cynical, pessimistic, hostile, loving, hopeless, anxious, …
Types of atmosphere/mood
a. Gloomy mood: It is an atmosphere of sorrow and anger within a text.
b. Happy mood is an atmosphere of joy within a text.
c. Tense mood is an atmosphere that creates anxiety or that shows signs of stress.
III.4. PURPOSE
Purpose refers to the reasons/motive that make the author write a fictional work. It is the objective of a writer while writing a piece of work.
The purpose may be categorised as:
a. To inform: The author aims to give facts or information about something
b. To explain: The author may write to explain the reason why things are the way they are providing details or facts.
c. To entertain: The author aims to provide with amusement or enjoyment.
……………………………………………………………..
PART TWO: POETRY
UNIT IV: TYPES OF POETRY AND POEMS
IV.0. INTRODUCTION
Poetry is a genre of literature characterized by the use of a distinctive style and rhythm to express feelings and ideas with special intensity.
IV.1. TYPES OF POETRY
Poetry is distinguished by its structure (verse form as opposed to paragraphing) and the strong feelings the poet expresses using concise language. It is marked by the use of few words which helps to build on emotions expressed.
There are many types of poetry. Poetry can be grouped according to the content and subject matter.
Therefore, poetry can be categorized as: -Narrative
-Descriptive
-Lyrical
a. Narrative poetry
It is a type of poetry which tells a story about an experience or an event. Narrative poetry relates events in the form of a story.
Characteristics:
–The poem tells a story.
-It may or may not rhyme.
-It could be short or long.
-It has a beginning, middle and end.
-There is a strong sense of narration, characters and plot.
b. Descriptive poetry
It is a type of poetry which describes as it explores the sensory experiences of a moment by evoking our senses (the sight, the hearing, the smell and the taste).
Characteristics:
– The poem use language that creates images and feelings in the reader.
-Most descriptive poems are long.
-They are deep in depicting the person, animal, object or the idea being described.
-They are less imaginative but more didactic or preachy.
-They are realistic and do not delve into emotions and metaphors.
c. Lyrical poetry
It is a type of poetry usually recited or even sung in the accompaniment of a musical instrument. Lyrical poetry expresses intense personal emotion in a manner suggestive of a song. It is different from a narrative poetry as it expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet.
Characteristics:
–It expresses personal feelings or thoughts.
-It has a musical quality.
-Most lyrical poems are short.
-They are mostly written in 1st person and include the writer in the poem.
-They mostly express intense emotions.
-The emotions expressed tend to lean towards the extremes in life such as love, death or loss.
IV.2. TYPES OF POEMS
A poem is a piece of writing in which words are chosen for their beauty and sound and are carefully arranged, often in short lines which rhyme.
Apart from the content, the form or structure of a poem will also determine which type of a poem it is. Therefore, we can have concrete and acrostic poems.
a. Concrete poems
A concrete poem usually called pattern or shape poetry, is a poem whose visual appearance matches the topic/subject matter of the poem. The emphasis is on form which distinguishes it from other types of poetry.
Examples:
Characteristics:
–The shape of the poem on the page symbolizes the content of the poem.
-The arrangement of letters and words creates an image that offers a meaning visually.
-Removing the form of the poem destroys or weakens the poem.
-The physical arrangement of the poem can provide a cohesion that the actual words lack which allows the poem to ignore standard syntax and logical sequencing.
b. Acrostic poems
These are poems by which the subject content is often built around the first word or sentence. The first word or sentence is written vertically, then using first letter of the word or first word of the line a poem is composed.
Examples: 
Characteristics:
–They spell out words using the first letter of each line of poetry.
-The word spelt is the name of a person or an object being described by the poet.
-Each word usually has its own verse and the verses can be separated by a line.
– Usually, acrostic poems do not have to rhyme.
IV.3. OTHER TYPES OF POEMS
a. An ode: It is a poem that speaks to a person or thing or celebrates a special event.
It is a kind of poem devoted to praise a person, an animal or thing.
b. An epic: A long poem about the actions of great men, women or about a nation’s history.
c. An elegy: – It is a poem or a song composed especially as a lament for a deceased person.
–It is a poem/song that expresses sadness especially for someone who has died.
– It is also a mournful or funeral song or a poem of lamentation.
d. A duet: It is a poem with two lines in each stanza.
e. A sonnet: It is a poem of fourteen lines using any number of formal rhyme scheme and has ten syllables per line.
A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines with regular rhythm and rhyme.
f. Haiku: It is a Japanese form of poem which consists of three lines, with the first and last lines having 5 syllables and the middle line having 7.
g. Couplet: Two lines of verse which rhyme and form a unit alone or as a part of a poem.
h. Free verse: This is a poem that does not follow any rules.
……………………………………………………………..
UNIT V: POETIC DEVICES
V.1. REVIEW OF POETIC DEVICES
Poetic devices are stylistic techniques that a poet employs in order to influence the way a poem sounds when read aloud and the overall mood created by sound patterns. They are also tools that a poet uses to create rhythm, enhance a poem’s meaning, or intensify a mood or a feeling.
Poets choose their language carefully for them to pass the message in the fewest words possible. To achieve this, they deliberately apply certain forms of style or poetic devices. Some of those devices include alliteration, assonance, repetition, personification, simile, rhythm and rhyme.
a. Alliteration
It is the repetition of initial consonant sounds at the beginning of words. It is the repetition of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Alliteration is used to create rhythm.
Ex: Betty Botter
Betty Botter bought some butter,
But, she said, the butter’s bitter;
If I put it in my batter
It will make my butter bitter
But a bit of better butter
Will make my batter better.
Ex: On his watch
Bleeds black blood
Brothers broken backs
Creature craving for crunches
They snarl.
Farewell for fools
He says
Ex: Plain plan pronounced
Sincere since seventh sabbath
Sweet smell of success
Bigger and better
b. Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within words in a line or lines of a poem. It is the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words.
Ex: Fleet feet them
Looting hoofers of Bloomington
Blood and blooming
Footing and glooming.
Ex2: -Men sell the wedding bells
-We light fire on the mountain
-How they ring out their delight!
-From the molten-golden notes
-I see mean people seeking.
He took a good look
At the nuisance tooth
N.B: You must be very sure of the pronunciation of words. They may seem similar yet they are pronounced differently.
c. Repetition
It refers to the deliberate use of a word or a group of words over and over again or recurrently in a poem. It is a poetic device that is commonly used.
It is the repeating of a word, a phrase, line, stanza or idea in a poem. Repetition not only creates rhythm in a poem but also establishes unity in the poem as well as helping the poet to emphasize certain ideas.
When repetition is used in the poem,
When repetition is used in the poem, it
–creates rhythm.
–lays emphasis on the theme and main idea in a poem.
–emphasizes the poet’s message and keeps it constantly stuck in the mind of the reader or audience.
Ex1: Smile by Mark Chetambe
They say she smiled at me
I will notslaughter my only cock
I will not throw a party
I will not bring down my flute
I will not compose a song
I will not change my walking style
I will not go to the barber for a box haircut…
Ex2:The Stem of the Branch by L.M. Asiedu
None on earth is like her,
She that made me breathe.
None on earth is like her,
She that filled my stomach.
None on earth is like her,
She that knew why i cried.
None on earth is like her,
She that protected me.
None on earth is like her,
She that gave me my first lessons.
None on earth is like her,
She whose death orphans me.
Ex3: Freedom song by Marjorie Macgoye
Atieno washes dishes,
Atieno plucks the chicken,
Atieno gets up early,
Beds her sacks down in kitchen,
Atieno eight years old,
Atieno yo.
Ex4:
Late, Late, So Late
Late, late, so late! and dark the night and chill!
Late, late, so late! but we can enter still.
Too late, too late! ye cannot enter now.
Ex5: A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
It was the best of times,
it was the worst of times,
it was the age of wisdom,….
Remember that there are many types of repetition like anaphora, epistrophe, among others
d. Personification
It is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings. Personification helps to make abstracts things become more alive and easy to understand.
Ex1: Pomegranate by Rabiarivelo
The rays of the new-born sun
search under the branches
the breast of ripe pomegranate
and bite it till it bleeds.
Discreet and shuddering kiss
hard and scalding embrace,
Soon the pure thrust
will draw purple blood.
Its taste will be sweeter,
because it was pregnant with desire
And with fearful love
and scented blossoms-
Pregnant by lover sun.
Ex2: Perfume Bottles by Kelly Roper
Pretty little bottles of perfume
Stood at attention on the dresser.
“Which one of us will she choose today?”
And they each took turns being the guesser.
“She’ll choose me,” the first one said,
“Because I smell like roses.”
“Not likely today,” the second bottle said.
“You’ll stink up everyone’s noses.”
“She’ll choose me,” the third bottle said.
“She loves how I smell like sandalwood.”
The second bottle replied again,
“She won’t choose you. I know I never would.”
The woman came in, looked at her perfumes,
Sniffed bottle two and choosed her.
Bottle two cried, “Yes! She chose me, the best;
I guess you other two are the losers!
e. Simile
It is a poetic device which uses the words ‘like’, ‘as’ or ‘than’ to show the resemblance between two things or it is a comparison which shows similarities between two different things by words ‘like’, ‘as’ or ‘than’. Simile is used to create an image in our mind and hence enables us understand the subject under comparison.
Ex1: The Face of Hunger by Oswald Mbuyiseni Mtshali
I counted the ribs on his concertina chest
bones protruding as if chiselled
by a sculptor’s hand of famine.
He looked with glazed pupils
seeing only a bun on some sky-high shelf.
The skin was pale and taut
Like a glove on a doctor’s hand.
His tongue darted in and out
Like a chameleon,
snatching a confetti of flies.
Oh! child,
your stomach is a den of lions
roaring day and night.
Ex2: My husband’s tongue
Is bitter like the roots of the lynno lily
It is hot like the penis of the bee,
Like the sting of the kalang!
Ocol’s tongue is fierce like the
arrow of the scorpion,
Deadly like the spear of the
buffalo-hornet.
It is ferocious
Like the poison of a barren woman
And corrosive like the juice of the gourd.
From Song of Lawino by Okot p’ Bitek.
Ex3: During Christmas
We gather as a mass
Boom! Boom! Boom!
The drums go as we hum.
Like a wild hyena
We laugh in the dance arena
The children graceful as Mary
And together we make merry:
Ex4: The day was as hot as the sun
He could swim like a fish
Her sneeze was as loud as a train whistle
I felt like a fish out of water
Ex5: Friends are like chocolate cake
You can never have too many.
Chocolate cake is like heaven-
Ex6: Love is like a painting
Filled with all colours and shades
Love is like a bleeding heart
Cut with many sharp blades.
Ex7: A Simile by N. Scott Momaday
What did we say to each other
that now we are as the deer
who walk in single file
with heads high
with ears forward
with eyes watchful
with hooves always placed on firm ground
in whose limbs there is latent flight
f. Rhythm
Rhythm refers to a strong regular repeated pattern of sound in poetry. It is also a series of stressed or accented syllables in a group of words, arranged so that the reader expects a similar series to follow. Rhythm is what we dance to in a song. It is the regular beat that defines the song. Rhythm that can be measured is called meter.
In writing poetry, rhythm acts as a beat in music. Rhythm is used to captivate the readers by giving musical effect to a literary piece.
Rhythm is created by:
-repetition
-sound patterns (repetition of certain sounds in a poem).
-length of lines- if of the same length.
g. Rhyme
Rhyme is a repetition of the same sound at the end of lines in a stanza. Rhyme occurs when two or more words sound similarly at their ends. A rhyme is a tool that uses repeating patterns to create rhythm or musicality in poems. A rhyme is used for a specific purpose of giving a pleasing effect to a poem, which makes its recital an enjoyable experience.
Usually, rhyme occurs at the end of lines in a poem, but it can also occur in the middle. If it occurs in the middle, it is called internal rhyme.
Ex1: Mama; don’t worry
Your son’s in no hurry
We will not rush to marry
And there make you sorry.
Ex2: The gaze of the beauty
When I look at Rwanda
I can’t help it wonder
How like a phoenix, from ashes this nation is rising
When I look at Rwanda, I can’t help it but start praising.
Ex3: The choice to believe in power of togetherness
The choice to walk hand in hand even through the darkness
The choice to trust the good in others
And the choice to work heart to heart with others
Because we are a summation, one nation
And never shall we betray the foundation.
h. Consonance
It is a repetition of consonant sounds within lines or sentences or in a poem.
Ex: –Mike likes his new bike
– I will crawl away the ball
-The zoo was amazing,
especially the lizards and the chimpanzees.
-There is no right time to imitate the teacher.
V.2. POINT OF VIEW
It refers to the angle an author uses to tell the reader about the happenings in a poem. It is the method the author uses to narrate the story. Simply, it is who is telling the story.
There are three points of view:
a. The first-person point of view
This involves the use the persona ‘I’ or ‘we’.
Ex1: Listen to me Papa
I tried hard as I could
I wanted to be top in class
I tried to be top in class
Others were better than me
They calculated faster than I could
They spelt better than I could
Listen Papa, I tried.
From ‘Listen, Papa’ by Gachanja Kiai
Ex2: Dressed up to look my best,
When I actually looked my worst.
I thought all this alcohol
would refresh my troublesome thirst.
Ex3: Beauty beckoned us
And like honey
We made haste
Oh! But beauty?
From ‘Boy Soldier’ by J A O. Teiye
b. The second person point of view
The second person of view employs the pronoun ‘you’.
Example: Sick
Don’t breathe next to me!
You might get me sick.
Your nose is so red
That it looks like a brick.
Your eyes are all puffy;
You’re sneezing a lot.
I’m leaving the room
I don’t want what you’ve got.
c. The third person point of view
It uses the pronouns ‘he, she, it or they’.
Ex: They met by accident
He proposed the idea
She gave her consent
All the way to the altar.
From ‘Outcast’ by G Gathemia
The speaker in a poem is not necessarily the poet. In most poems, the poet will speak from different points of view. The person who speaks in a poem is referred to as a persona.
Note that identifying the speaker in the poem is important in discovering the overall intention of the poem; and it helps bring out the feelings and the attitude being shared.
V.3. CONTEXT
Context refers to the circumstances forming the background of an event, idea or statement, in a such a way as to enable the audience (readers, listeners, spectator) understand the narrative or a literary piece.
Generally, context refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a poem.
…………………………………………………………….
PART THREE: DRAMA
UNIT VI: CONTEXT AND PLOT DEVELOPMENT
VI.1. CONTEXT IN A PLAY
Context is the set of circumstances or facts that surround a play, such as the setting and other factors affecting the setting. It refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a play. Therefore, context refers to the background information surrounding a play.
a. Social context: It refers to the reflection of how the characters’ actions and attitudes are affected by events occurring around the time and place where they live. It is also a condition of existence. It involves the characters’ interactions in all levels of life.
b. Historical context: This refers to the time period in which a story occurs. Both historical events (like wars) can influence the story. It is an aspect of setting that pertains to when events and when characters live and interact.
c. Cultural context: It can be described as the sustained conditions, collective expectations and prevailing norms among a group of people or a social network. It includes the values of a society, their beliefs social and moral norms as well as the meanings people give to the human actions and behaviours.
d. Political context: This deals with the leadership characteristics and dynamics of a society. It includes the types of leadership (like democracy, monarchy, kingdom, chiefdom), the role of people in determining their leadership, freedoms and rights…
VI.2. PLOT DEVELOPMENT
Plot development refers to the sequence of events in a play that make us follow what is happening. The plot is carefully arranged with logical series of events having a beginning, middle and end. In a play, the words (dialogue) and actions of characters are essential as this is what makes the story move from one point to the next.
The following are the major elements/stages of plot development.
The parts or elements of a plot
a. Exposition/conflict: It is the opening part of a play which introduces important information to the audience. This information includes the setting, characters and the conflict is introduced. Exposition can be conveyed through dialogues, flashbacks or characters’ thoughts through monologues.
b. Rising action/complication: It is the part of a plot which comes after introduction/exposition. This part is where a series of events build toward the point of greatest interest. A lot of tension and suspense are built in this part.
c. Climax/crisis: In a play, it is the turning point of the fate of the main character. It is the highest point of interest. It is where the main characters have to make decisions that must resolve the main conflict of the play.
d. Falling action: It is the point where the events begin to lead to the conclusion of the play. At this point, the conflicts begin to be resolved and the main character(s) either lose or win against the problems.
e. Resolution/denouement/conclusion: This stage comprises the events from the end of the falling action to the actual ending scene of a drama. This is where the conflict is resolved or concluded and normality is restored for the characters. The character(s) might live happily ever after.
Note: – A conflict is the struggle between two opposing forces or between characters.
-A good plot is the one that captivates by introducing twists and turns to the development of events.
– The plot should not be obviously predictable as this kills the interests of the audience.
……………………………………………………………..
UNIT VII: CHARACTER, SUBJECT MATTER AND THEMES
VII.0. INTRODUCTION
Plays are made of conversations and stage directions of characters. Within these conversations, the playwright put across the intended themes, which are reflected by the topics/subject matter of discussion.
VII.1. CHARACTERS IN A PLAY
Characters are people, animals or things that play a part in a play. It is the characters that will deliver the intended message. Characters should suit their roles as they represent real people in life so that they attract the interest of the audience.
In a play, there is the protagonist and the antagonist character and the conflict in the play is built around them.
a. The protagonist
The protagonist is the central character who represents good intentions in a play. Note that the protagonist can also be a bad guy depending on the circumstances or the message that the playwright wishes to highlight. This character tends to confront or to struggle with the antagonist.
b. The antagonist
The antagonist is referred to the main/central character who is a rival and places the obstacles or opposes the protagonist. He/she is a main character that portrays bad intentions. Note that the antagonist can also be referred to any circumstance or object that is anti the protagonist.
Other types of characters in a play
Confidante is someone in whom the central character confides/trust, thus revealing the main character’s personality, thoughts and intentions. The confidante does not need to be a person.
Dynamic character is a character who changes during the course of a play. Sometimes a dynamic character is called a developing character.
Flat character is a character who reveals only one or two personality traits in a play, and the traits do not change.
Foil character is a character that is used to enhance another character through contrast.
Round character refers to a well-developed character who demonstrates varied and sometimes contradictory traits. Round characters are usually dynamic.
Static character is a character that remains primarily the same throughout a play.
VII.2. SUBJECT MATTER IN A PLAY
It is the broad topic or idea that the playwright addresses or a topic, which acts as a foundation for a play. It is also the broad topic of a literary work.
VII.3. THEMES IN A PLAY
The theme is referred to the main message, derived from the broad topic, that characters and the events in a play communicate to the readers. It is also the central/ main idea of the play.
Differentiating a subject matter from a theme
- The subject matter can be war while the theme can be the consequences of war.
- Where we have Christmas as a subject matter, the theme can be giving and being generous during Christmas.
- If love is a subject matter, true love can be a theme.
…………………………………………………………..
UNIT VIII: STYLE, MOOD AND ATMOSPHERE
VIII.1. STYLE IN A PLAY
Style refers to the manner in which a writer chooses his words, tone and the structure of his sentences in a story or play to enhance meaning and understanding. It may also be called techniques or devices that the writer uses.
Those dramatic devices may include:
a. Monologue
It is a long speech by one character/actor in a play to the audience. This speech is intended to be heard by other characters. The audience might be audience within a play [or those who are watching a play]. Monologue can be heard by other characters on stage and they can respond.
b. Dialogue
In drama, dialogue refers to a conversation between two characters or more characters/actors.
Therefore, dialogue:
– makes a play enjoyable and lively.
-reveals the characters to the audience through their words, actions and thoughts.
-creates the tone of the play.
-presents the exposition or cause of conflict.
c. Soliloquy
This is long speech by one character in a play to himself or herself in order to reveal to the audience his/her thoughts and innermost secrets.
d. Stage directions
They are instructions in the text of a play, indicating the movement, position or tone of an actor, or the sound effects and lighting.
e. Body language (gestures & facial expressions)
Body language refers to use of the body to communicate how characters feel. It includes the use of gestures, postures and facial expressions. They help a person to manifest various physical, mental or emotional states. This way he/she communicates non-verbally with others.
Ex: – Smiling
–Frowning
–Throwing hands in the air.
-Nodding a head.
-Clothing, …
In theatre and drama, body language is used to convey the mood and emotion with subtlety.
f. Aside
It is a short comment or speech from a character that is spoken directly to the audience. It is only meant for the audience. It reveals inner thoughts. Asides are shorter than soliloquies, usually one or two lines.
- An aside gives special information to the audience about the plot and other characters on stage.
- It gives better understanding to the audience about the essence of the matter.
- Asides also give enjoyable experience to the audience as an actor talks to them directly, drawing them closer to his/her actions and thoughts.
- The similarities between an aside and soliloquy is that a single character speaks directly to himself or audience and to no other character can hear the speech.
- The difference between them is that an aside is shorter while a soliloquy is a longer speech. An aside reveals hidden secrets or judgments whereas the soliloquy reveals motives, inner thoughts or internal struggles going on in the mind of the character.
g. Dramatic irony
Dramatic irony is a situation where the audience knows something the characters do not know. It is used to create suspense.
h. Symbolism
It is the use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities. Symbolism involves the use of something to stand for/represent something else.
Ex: The dove is a symbol of peace
The cross symbolizes Christianity
A ring on a finger can mean marriage
A red rose stands for love/romance.
VIII.2. ATMOSPHERE/MOOD
The mood is the feeling the audience gets as they read, listen or watch a play. In drama, mood is enhanced through the use of stage directions, dialogues and monologue, dramatic irony, symbolism, images and body language… as well as the choice of words, use of punctuation and tone of the voice.
Ex: In a funeral setting, the music can be soft and sad to capture the mournful feeling.
The following words can be used to describe the mood:
Joyful, excited, appreciative, friendly, humorous, sad, mournful, gloomy and depressing among many others.
REFERENCES
REB BOOKS:
-Achievers Literature in English for Rwandan Schools -Senior 1
– An Introduction to Literature in English for Rwandan Schools -Senior 1
-Achievers Literature in English for Rwandan Schools -Senior 2
– Literature in English for Rwandan Schools -Senior 3
INTERNET: (Various websites)
Leave a comment